Christians often debate whether or not women may be ordained as pastors/elders. Some say “no” (commonly called complementarians); others say “yes” (commonly called egalitarians). This is an important question, and in future articles I will present some of the basic lines of argument from each side. However, this much is clear: There should never be any churches in which women are sidelined or their gifts are overlooked. This article begins by presenting the common ground that is held by moderate theologians on both sides of the debate over women in ministry. The examples that follow are not intended to be exhaustive, but to show that women have always been vital to the church’s ministry.
Women are Prophetesses
Both sides believe that in the Old and New Testament, God gave women the gift of prophecy to minister as prophetesses. Even prior to Pentecost, God spoke to Israel through women like “Miriam the prophetess” (Ex. 15:20); “Deborah, a prophetess” (Judg. 4:4); “Huldah the prophetess” (2 Ki. 22:14); “the prophetess Noadiah” (Neh. 6:14); Isaiah’s wife, “the prophetess” (Isa. 8:3); and “a prophetess, Anna” (Lk. 2:36). When the Book of the Law was discovered during the reign of Josiah, the priest and royal officials consulted Huldah, who then delivered God’s message of judgment to them: “Thus says the Lord” (2 Kings 22:15).
A key point of Acts 2 is that Pentecost marks the beginning of an age in which the Spirit empowers not just more men but more women like Miriam, Deborah, and Huldah to proclaim God’s word: “Your sons and your daughters shall prophesy … even on my male servants and female servants in those days I will pour out my Spirit, and they shall prophesy” (Acts 2:17–18). Paul encouraged both men and women to “earnestly desire the spiritual gifts, especially that you may prophesy” (1 Cor. 14:1). The early church recognized four of Philip’s daughters as prophets (Acts 21:8–9), and they were later praised by Polycrates, bishop of Ephesus, as “great lights” who “lived in the Holy Spirit” (Eusebius, EH 3.31.3). Eusebius also mentions Ammia as a well-known prophetess in Philadelphia (EH 5.17).
Pentecost marks the beginning of an age in which the Spirit empowers not just more men but more women like Miriam, Deborah, and Huldah to proclaim God’s word.
Christians on both sides also believe that women prayed and prophesied out loud to both men and women in the gathered assemblies of the early church (not just in private to other women). In 1 Corinthians 11, Paul teaches that in the context of public worship, “every gunē [wife/women] who prays or prophesies” should be “covered” (1 Cor. 11:5). However one interprets this instruction, both sides take it to mean that women did, in fact, prophecy out loud in the public gathering. This is crucial to remember when reading what Paul says three chapters later: “The women should keep silent in the churches” (1 Cor. 14:34). Complementarians and egalitarians both recognize that this is not even close to an absolute prohibition of women speaking in church. Paul was prohibiting a particular kind of speech (some think the judgment of prophecies; others think the asking of questions in a context where it was not considered culturally acceptable).
Women Are Teachers, Theologians, and Scholars
Christians on both sides also believe that God gives women the gifts of teaching and knowledge to minister as teachers, theologians, and scholars. Priscilla and her husband Aquila catechized the great preacher Apollos, explaining to him the way of God more accurately (Acts 18:26). Priscilla is repeatedly named before her husband, which may indicate that she was of higher social standing (e.g., a Roman citizen) or that she was the primary teacher. Paul mentions both Priscilla (aka “Prisca”) and Aquila as his “fellow workers in Christ Jesus” (Rom. 16:3; cf. 2 Tim. 4:19).
God gives women the gifts of teaching and knowledge to minister as teachers, theologians, and scholars.
Women throughout church history served in similar ways. The Cappadocian fathers were trained in theology by their sister, Macrina the Younger (c. 327–379), and always hailed her as “the Teacher,” a theologian in her own right. Marcella of Rome (325–410), Paula of Rome (347–404), and Paula’s daughter Eustochium (368–419) were scholars of Hebrew and Greek who assisted Jerome with the Vulgate—the standard Bible of Western Christianity for over a thousand years. Four female “Doctors of the Church” (a title given to teachers of the highest order) are recognized by the Roman Catholic Church: Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179), Catherine of Siena (1347–1380), Teresa of Ávila (1515–1582), and Thérèse of Lisieux (1873–1897). Hildegard famously went on four preaching tours sanctioned by the pope, and Bishop Eberhard of Bamberg (1100–1170) described her as “a flaming torch which our Lord has lighted in His Church.” Female teachers were also crucial to the spread of Protestant theology. For example, Argula von Grumbach (1492–1568) published pamphlets that at one time outsold all of the reformers except Martin Luther.
Women Are Deacons
Christians on both sides also believe that qualified women may be ordained to the office of deacon. While some argue for a male-only diaconate (e.g., because “seven men” were chosen to be the first deacons in Acts 6:3), many others make biblical and historical arguments for the ordination of female deacons. For example, when Paul gives qualifications for deacons, he includes qualifications for the gunē. While this could refer to the deacons’ “wives” (ESV), it seems odd for Paul to give qualifications for the wives of deacons but not the wives of elders. Some argue, therefore, that a better translation is “women” (NASB; NIV; RSV)—that is, female deacons.
Phoebe was most likely an ordained deacon—an officer of the church, serving under the elders.
Paul commended Phoebe as “a diakonos of the church at Cenchreae” (Rom. 16:1), which can mean “servant” in a generic sense, but can also be translated as “deacon” in the more formal sense. Given Phoebe’s role in delivering Paul’s letter to the Romans, and the phrase “of the church at Cenchreae,” Phoebe was most likely an ordained deacon—an officer of the church, serving under the elders. A 4th-century tombstone on the Mount of Olives is inscribed, “the minister and bride of Christ, Sophia the deacon, a second Phoebe.” John Wesley notes, “In the apostolic age, some grave and pious women were appointed deaconesses in every church (Notes on the Bible). Origen (c. 185–254) writes, “This passage teaches that there were women ordained in the church’s ministry by the apostle’s authority” (Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans). John Chrysostom (c. 347–407) agrees: “Note how many ways Paul dignifies Phoebe. He mentions her before all the rest and even calls her his sister. It is no small thing to be called the sister of Paul! Moreover, he has mentioned her rank of deaconess as well” (Homilies on Romans, 30).
In his own day, Chrysostom was friends with Olympias (c. 361–408), a female deacon who forsook her enormous wealth and aristocratic lifestyle to serve the church, help the needy, build hospitals, construct an orphanage, and oversee a monastery. Theodoret of Cyrrhus records the account of a “remarkable” deaconess who converted the son of a pagan priest and became “his teacher” (Church History, 3.10). Theosebia the Deaconess (died c. 385), sister of Gregory of Nyssa, was honored by Gregory of Nazianzus as “Theosebia, the glory of the church, the adornment of Christ, the helper of our generation, the hope of woman; Theosebia, the most beautiful and glorious among all the beauty of the Brethren; Theosebia, truly sacred, truly a companion of a priest, and of equal honour, and worthy of the Great Sacraments; Theosebia, whom all future time shall receive, resting on immortal pillars, that is, on the souls of all who have known her now, and of all who shall be hereafter.”
Women are Evangelists, Missionaries, and Church Planters
Christians on both sides also believe that the church needs women to serve as evangelists, missionaries, and church planters. In Romans 16:7, Paul greets Andronicus and someone who is named, in Greek, Iounias. The scholarly consensus is that Iounias is a woman’s name and should therefore be translated as “Junia,” not “Junias.” Andronicus was likely her husband. Paul first calls them his “fellow prisoners,” which means that Junia had spent time in prison because of her ministry. Paul then says that Andronicus and Junia were “well known en the apostles.” Some translate the Greek preposition as “to the apostles” (ESV; NET; LEB); however, if this was Paul’s intention, then he would have likely included himself and said “well known to us apostles” (as in 1 Corinthians 4:9). In the context of speaking about ministry coworkers who were jailed for their labors, the preposition more likely means “among the apostles” (KJV; NIV; NLT), in which case Junia was a notorious female apostle. This was in fact the undisputed view of the church for nearly 1,500 years.
It was the undisputed view of the church for nearly 1,500 years that Junia was an apostle.
The word “apostle” (apostolos) means “sent one” and was attributed to persons other than the Twelve to indicate various ministries which involved being formally sent by the Church to fulfill a task. Epaphroditus was called an apostolos in the sense of being a sent messenger, envoy, or delegated courier (Php. 2:25). Barnabas was called an apostolos in the sense of being a church planter or itinerant missionary, formally commissioned by the church at Antioch with the laying on of hands (Acts 14:14; 13:3). In church history, Mary Magdalene is often called “the apostle to the apostles,” since Jesus sent her to his disciples to witness to them about his resurrection (Jn. 20:17). Given the context of Romans 16, Junia was most likely a pioneering apostle like Barnabas. Chrysostom said, “To be apostles at all is a great thing. But to be even among these of note, just consider what a great encomium this is! But they were of note owing to their works, to their achievements. Oh! How great is the devotion of this woman [Junia], that she should be even counted worthy of the appellation of apostle!” (Homilies on Romans, 31). Each year on May 17, the Eastern Orthodox Church celebrates “the holy, glorious, all-laudable Apostle Junia.”
Throughout church history, female missionaries and evangelists have been crucial to the spread of global Christianity. For example, Nino is credited with bringing the gospel to Iberia (modern-day Georgia) and, like Mary Magdalene, is given the title of “Equal to the Apostles” in the Eastern Church.
Women Are Coworkers in Mixed-Gender Ministry Teams
Several other women are mentioned as close coworkers of the apostles and may have also served as apostles or teachers. In Philippians 4:3, Paul addresses Euodia and Syntyche, “who have labored side by side with me in the gospel together with Clement and the rest of my fellow workers, whose names are in the book of life.” The apostles worked alongside women in mixed-gender ministry teams. Chrysostom asks, “Do you see how great is the virtue of these women, according to his testimony? As great as that which Christ told his apostles … ‘your names are written in the book of life.’ … Did they toil with him? Yes, he says. They contributed in no small part. Even though there were many fellow workers, yet in many affairs they also took a hand. Great therefore was the cohesion of the church at that time when the most respected, whether men or women, enjoyed such honor from the rest. There were many good consequences” (Homily on Philippians, 14.4.2–3).
The apostles worked alongside women in mixed-gender ministry teams.
In 1 Corinthians 9:5, Paul asks, “Do we not have the right to take along an adelphē gunē, as do the other apostles and the brothers of the Lord and Cephas?” While adelphē gunē is commonly translated as “believing wife” (ESV), Paul was not married when he wrote it, and thus did not have a believing wife to bring. Since gunē can simply mean “woman” and adelphē can mean “sister” (as it is translated in the KJV), some think, going back to Clement of Alexandria (Stromata 3.6.53) that an adelphē gunē was a sister-woman (a sister in the Lord or female coworker), and that it was common for the apostles to have at least one in their company, following the example of Christ who was often accompanied by a group of female disciples like Mary Magdalene.
Women Are Patrons and Benefactors
Christians on both sides also recognize the crucial role that women served as patrons and benefactors. Jesus and his disciples were financially supported by Mary Magdalene, Joanna, Susanna, and many other women “who provided for them out of their means” (Lk. 8:3). Paul called Phoebe “a patron of many and of myself as well” (Rom. 16:2). Lydia, a merchant who dealt in the lucrative business of purple-dyed goods, hosted the first house church in Philippi (Acts 16:40). Nympha likewise hosted a house church in Laodicea (Col. 4:15). Mary, the mother of John Mark, hosted prayer meetings in her home and was known for caring for church members (Acts 12:12). Some think that “the elect lady” to whom John addresses his second epistle was an actual woman who oversaw a house church (2 Jn. 1).
In church history, female patrons had tremendous influence in the development of Christian ministry and scholarship.
In church history, female patrons had tremendous influence in the development of Christian ministry and scholarship. In addition to their editorial work, Paula and Marcella provided financial support to Jerome’s translation of the Vulgate. Melania the Elder (c. 350–410), one of the wealthiest citizens of her day, financially supported monks through a time of persecution, founded a monastery, and invested in scholars such as Rufinus. Melania was also highly educated and was said to have read three millions lines of Origen and two-and-a-half million lines of Gregory and other standard writers, often reading the same ancient commentary seven or eight times.
Women Are Gifted to Serve in Countless Ways
Of course, women may also serve in countless other ways according to their gifting. In his letters, Paul mentions several other notable female coworkers who undoubtedly had a variety of spiritual gifts. In Philemon 2, Paul addresses “Apphia our sister” alongside “Archippus our fellow soldier.” In Romans 16:6, he greets Mary, “who has worked hard for you,” as well as Tryphaena, Tryphosa, and “the beloved Persis,” whom he identifies as “workers in the Lord” (Rom. 16:12). Chrysostom says of Mary, “A woman again is honored and proclaimed victorious! Again are we men put to shame. … The women of those days were more spirited than lions, sharing with the Apostles their labors for the Gospel’s sake. In this way they went travelling with them, and also performed all other ministries” (Homily 31 on Romans).
Women from the first century to the present day have been vital to the church’s ministry and often outshined their male coworkers. The only firm division between complementarians and egalitarians is over the office of elder/pastor. There are Christians on both sides who agree that women may serve in every other position of leadership and service.
